Background

Emiliano Zapata, was born in the state of Morelos in 1879.   He grew up during the “Porfiriato” era, named for a period of political and economic domination of Porfirio Diaz, who ruled Mexico for almost thirty years, beginning in 1876.  The social system of the time was a capitalist / feudal system, with large landed estates, known as haciendas.  The landed elite began to control more and more of the land, squeezing out the independent communities of the indigenous population, who were subsequently forced into debt labor on the haciendas. Under Díaz, close confidants and associates were given offices in districts throughout Mexico. These officials became enforcers of “land reforms” that drove the haciendas into the hands of progressively fewer and wealthier landowners.

Zapata became a leader in his home town of Anenecuilco, as he became involved in struggles for the rights of the campesinos of Morelos. He assisted with the redistribution of land from some haciendas peacefully, but had problems with others. And, he observed conflicts between villagers and hacendados, and the continual theft of village land.  For many years, he campaigned for the rights of the villagers by establishing ancient title deed claims to disputed land.

The 1910 Revolution

Over time, the Diaz regime began to lose favor with most sectors within Mexico (not just the traditional opposition), as wealth and access to power became increasingly concentrated.  Porfirio Diaz came under threat by the candidacy of Francisco I. Madero, with whom Zapata was initially allied.   In 1910, Zapata became the general of an army known as the Ejército Libertador del Sur, or Liberation Army of the South.  In 1911, Madero, with the support of Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa and other prominent revolutionaries, overthrew the Diaz regime. Under Madero, new land reforms were enacted and elections were to be ensured. However, Zapata was dissatisfied with Madero’s stance on land reform, and was unable to make him understand the importance of the issue or to get him to act on it.

Madero and Zapata’s relations worsened during the summer of 1911 as Madero appointed a governor who supported plantation owners and refused to meet Zapata’s agrarian goals. Compromises between the two failed in November 1911, days after Madero appointed himself President, and Zapata fled to the mountains of Puebla.  Here, they formed the most radical reform plan in Mexico; The Plan de Ayala.

Zapata began to use his newly-found power and began to overthrow city after city with gaining momentum. Madero, alarmed, asked Zapata to disarm and demobilize. Zapata responded that, if the people could not win their rights now, when they were armed, they would have no chance once they were unarmed and helpless. Madero sent several generals in an attempt to deal with Zapata, but these efforts had little success. Although this may have caused individuals to believe that the revolution was over, it was not. The battle continued for years to come over the fact that Mexican individuals did not have agrarian rights that were fair, nor did they have the protection necessary to fight against those who pushed such exploitation upon them.

While government forces could never defeat Zapata in battle, in 1919, he fell victim to a carefully engineered ambush.  He was 39 years old.  Zapata’s legacy lives on to this day, as people in Mexico continue to struggle for equity, land and a voice in their own futures.

The annual observance of Day of the Dead in Mexico is often misunderstood or misinterpreted. I am often asked, “is it Mexico’s Halloween?” or, “is it sad?”. My reply to the first is , “no” and to the second, “sometimes but not necessarily”. So what is Day of the Dead historically in Mesoamerica, and how is it observed in Mexico today? While there are layers of complexity to the answer, I will try to keep it simple.

History

Many Mexican Holiday and Festival Observances have their root (pardon the pun) in the agricultural and/or hunting cycle, with strong pre-Hispanic roots, due to the importance of maize as the base of Mesoamerican culture. Fertility, rain and ancient gods are later transformed into Christian Saints and Virgins. Fall and Winter fiestas occur at the end of the harvest, from Day of the Dead -as end and beginning (dualism), and continue with the Sun Cult through Semana Santa. Spring and Summer fiestas occur during the rainy season in answer to the rain propitiatory fiestas that begin with Dia de la Santa Cruz (May 3) and end in many cases with San Miguel Arcangel on September 29th.

The Catholic feast of All Saints and Faithful Dead promoted the fusion of two worlds, and established itself as one of the most fruitful aspects of the intercultural dialogue.

Introduced into Catholic myth in the 10^th Century, All Saints and Faithful Dead have long roots, dating back to Celtic winter festivals that marked the end of summer and the beginning of winter. The observance on November 1 occurred during the reign of Pope Gregory IV to commemorate the martyrs that had died in the process of establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The feast of All Saints represented the union of all saints on that single day of celebration, resulting in one of the most important dates and events within the church. The images of catholic saints corresponded analogously to the ancient pre-Colombian religions, in which a specific divinity took the shape of a divine ancestor or deity, becoming a unifying force of the community. Fasting, penitence, confession and priesthood, religious feasts supernatural beings are all elements that aided and promoted the substitution of original forms.

Finally, the calendar was a critical element that helped establish the scheme that allowed for the organization of similarities and differences between both worlds. 360 days of 18 months x 20 days, leaving 5 unlucky days. 7 of these months were dedicated to the dead, among the most important, was the one that fell between Oct/Nov (Quecholli). These ceremonies of the Great Feast of the Dead were part of a much larger ceremonial CYCLE, from April to February. These celebrations were concerned with the propitiation of the water gods, the rain and the agricultural cycle. Quecholli coincides with the end of the rainy season.

Dualism and the Agricultural Cycle

For the ancient cultures of Mesoamerica, death and life were not the extremes of a straight line, but rather two points diametrically situated in a moving circle. This cyclical notion of life and death was linked to an elaborate concept of the cosmos, which was divided into two opposing spheres, connected through a cosmic tree, through which celestial and subterranean forces flowed. This concept of dualism is also seen in the division between dry and rainy season, hot and cold. These two opposing notions complement each other as symmetrical parts of a single principle. Death regenerates into life.

The Agricultural Cycle of maize plays an important part in the indigenous conception of the dual cosmos. The wet/dry cycle begins in May (Celebration of the Holy Cross, May 3) and ends with the All Saints and Faithful Dead in Oct./Nov. This dualism is not only represented in the seasons, but also between the planting and harvest of the maize. During these periods, indigenous communities go from periods of great scarcity to relative abundance.

The Altar and Gravesite Offerings

Marigolds, or Cempasuchitl, Flower of the Dead in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs represent the earth, and vital spirit force; candles represent fire and light and the Sun, another vital force! Papel Picado (cut out paper) represents wind, or the cold, arduous trek that is necessary for the dead to travel to Mictlan. Finally, a cup filled with holy water is indispensable on the table for All Saints.